Wildlife-viewing Guidelines

Biodiversity Working Group, TAPAS, IUCN

There has been a lot of talk recently about Nature-Positive Tourism.

To be truly be nature positive we need to consider the effects of tourism on, not just the large mammals, reptiles and fish, colourful birds and attractive trees and flowering shrubs appreciated by tourists, but all of biodiversity: the myriads of invertebrates (insects, worms etc.) fungi and tiny plants inhabiting soils and leaf litter, the corals, sponges and other invertebrates of marine ecosystems, etc., especially in Protected Areas (National Parks etc.), where their primary role in nature conservation but where true ecotourism, with its emphasis on protecting the natural ecosystems and educating visitors about them, is a welcome and useful activity.

In 2023, Dr Ronda Green, chair of Wildlife Tourism Australia, was voted in as chair of the Biodiversity Working Group within the TAPAS (Tourism And Protected Areas) Group, which in turn is within the WCPA (World Commission on Protected Areas), itself a sector of IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), based in Switzerland.

One of the Biodiversity Working Group goals for 2024 is to collate minimal-impact wildlife-viewing guidelines from around the world, digest some common elements, allow discussion on controversial or largely-unexplored issues, identify some taxon-specific and region-specific guidelines, and ultimately make this as widely available as possible, in an easily-navigable format, to everyone from large International companies to local guides in remote areas of developing countries.

This is still very much a work-in-progress, currently being hosted on this website

For particular guidelines, visit:

Some agreements and some challenges.

It’s important, but not always easy, to decide on a set of guidelines for any particular situation.

We can mostly agree that we want wildlife tourism to:

  • avoid or minimise any negative effect on wildlife populations or biodiversity in general
  • contribute wherever possible to conservation of wildlife and biodiversity in general
  • not cause animal welfare problems
  • satisfy tourists
  • keep tourists and guides safe
  • treat employees and local residents fairly

How best to do so is not always obvious

Some complications:

  • difference between species, even within a group: e.g. amongst birds, what works for honeyeaters may not work for eagles
  • there are differences between individuals within a species: e.g. what works for kangaroos near tourism or residential areas may not work in outback areas where they’ve been hunted
  • it is not always clear what causes stress to an animal, and extreme claims are sometimes made in each direction, from “nature is resilient and we shouldn’t restrict visitor activities even if animals are disturbed by them” to “any form of wildlife-human interaction is inherently cruel”
  • tourists with different cultural backgrounds, philosophical views or emotional needs may have very different expectations and attitudes, not all of which can be automatically dismissed
  • some effects of wildlife tourism may have negative outcomes but still be better for the wildlife than alternative land uses (e.g. clearing for cattle farms or mining, sports hunting/fishing) if the tourism activities cease: each situation should be carefully considered

The Biodiversity Working Group of the IUCN’s TAPAS group is presenting lists of guidelines collated from around the world, some general and others targeted to specific groups of wildlife. We are also listing some relevant academic and other references.

General wildlife viewing guidelines

Wildlife Tourism Australia

Wildlife Tourism Australia considers the following criteria essential to include:

  • Wildlife conservation (minimal-disturbance of target wildlife and other species sharing the habitat);
  • Where possible positive action for conservation such as habitat restoration (tree, planting weed-pulling …), conservation-related citizen-science research or donations to conservation projects;
  • Animal welfare (this is usually in alignment with conservation, but sometimes there are conflicts);
  • Quality of visitor education about wildlife;
  • Respect for (and where possible contribution to, such as buying and hiring locally) local communities; and
  • Various other matters such as safety for staff and visitors, employee conditions and legislation compliance.

List of minimal-disturbance guidelines presented by WTA chair for discussions at a workshop in Sabah 2023

Wildlife-watching-guidelines-draft-November-2023Download

World Tourism Organization and Guangdong Chimelong Group Report on sustainable wildlife tourism

World Tourism Organization and Guangdong Chimelong Group (2020), Sustainable Development of Wildlife Tourism in Asia and the Pacific, UNWTO, Madrid, DOI: https://doi.org/10.18111/9789284421572.

This document was edited by Wildlife Tourism Australia committee members Dr Ronda Green and Professor Noel Scott, who enlisted the help of experts from around the world to produce a set of criteria for good practice before selecting a number of operations as case studies.

The criteria were developed with consideration of all stakeholders involved in wildlife tourism (some considered mandatory, some a bonus):

  • Viewing in the wild: Staff training and behaviour, Minimizing disturbance to wildlife and habitats, Combatting illegal wildlife trafficking, Community Impacts, Visitors (safety, satisfaction, education)
  • Captive wildlife viewing: Physical well-being, Mental well-being, Human-wildlife interaction, Conservation, Visitors, Community criteria
  • Business aspects: Expertise amongst management and staff, Regulations/legislation, Supporting conservation research, including citizen science, Interesting, accurate and inspiring nature interpretation, General environmental measures, Social and cultural measures,Business operation, Visitors, Public sector
  • Additional considerations

Association of British Travel Agents

Association of British Travel Agents (2014), ABTA Animal Welfare Guidelines, ABTA, London.

ANIMONDIAL (n.d.), ANIMONDIAL (online), available at: www.animondial.com (01-01-2019).

Wildlife Friendly Enterprise Network (n.d.), Wildlife Friendly Enterprise Network (online): www.wildlifefriendly.org (30-07-2019)

World Animal Protection Australia (n.d.), Compassionate travel: Our advice (online): www.worldanimalprotection.org.au/ (01-01-2019).

Bird-watching

Ethical Birdwatching Guidelines

From “Working in Wildlife Tourism” by Ronda Green:

“Nesting birds should not be closely approached, although some certainly tolerate t much more than others. How close is too close? Some will stay on their eggs until you are almost on top of them, others will fly off long before you even know they are there (and you probably never will). Avoid getting anywhere near an eagle’s nest, as they can be especially likely to flee (you can easily view them from afar instead with good binoculars or a spotting scope), and avoid taking groups through bushland gullies if you know small birds are nesting in low shrubs there (unless you know they are very well habituated). Don’t get close enough to endanger the eggs and chicks of seabird colonies: researchers have noted situations where predatory birds sit and wait for tourists to scare parents from the nests so they can swoop in on the young. If you see the parent leaving (unless it has just fed chicks and headed off to gather more food), back off until things return to normal, if necessary leaving the site altogether. Melissa Giese (Green and Giese 2004) found penguins’ heartbeats to get more rapid before they showed any visible signs of stress. If the viewer approaches more closely, they will start to look around to each side, and if the approach continues, they stand up. Big deal? Well if you are in the Antarctic yes it is, because even a few seconds of exposure to the icy air can kill chicks or crack eggs”. Green, R. J. and Giese, M. 2004. The Negative Effects of Wildlife Tourism on Wildlife. In K. Higginbottom (ed.) Wildlife Tourism, Sustainable Tourism CRC

Marine Wildlife Tourism

An extensive list of guidelines from around the world for whale-watching and other marine wildlife tours can be found here https://wwhandbook.iwc.int/en/responsible-management/guidelines-and-regulations

Whales and dolphins

  • The World Cetacean Alliance (n.d.), Global Best Practice Guidance for Responsible Whale and Dolphin Watching (online), available at: https://worldcetaceanalliance.org (01-01-2019).

Other Marine Mammals

For seals, see under Arctic and Antarctic

Marine reptiles

Turtles

Marine Fish

Lawrence, A.J. et al. (2016), Responsible Shark & Ray Tourism: A Guide to Best Practice, Gland, Switzerland: WWF, and Rancho Santa Margarita, USA: Project AWARE and Dorset, UK: Manta Trust.

Coral reefs

Other marine

Primates

Primates vary enormously, from the tiny, nocturnal tasers and bushbabies to the great apes, so a one-size-fits-all is clearly impossible. Also, some primates (e.g. in monkey forests in Japan, Bali and Thailand) are well-habituated to human presence, and can be (carefully) approached more closely, but still with due regard to safety and comfort of both human and non-human primate.

Remember a direct stare is perceived by many monkeys and apes as a threat, so tourists should be advised tavern their tae when inclose proximity.

As with other wildlife, unauthorised feeding another interactions can leading to monkeys becoming dangerousor at least an on-going nuisance, even sealing tourist possessions such as phones and cameras.

Humans share susceptibility to viruses with their close relatives, so we need to explain to tourists why they shouldn’t participate in visits to great apes or close encounters with monkey if suffering from illness, especially respiratory complaints.

Interpretation of stress varies, and there can be discrepancies between ideal situation and what is likely to happen in reality. . One paper on proboscis monkeys in Sabah, based on attention by monkeys towards approaching boats, suggests no boats, even quiet ones, should approach closer than 60m. It is unlikely that many tourists companies would adhere this especially if competitors weren’t doing likewise. It would seem more realistic to approach as quietly as possible and back off if moneys show any signs of fleeing the site, adjusting future approaches accordingly to avoid reaching that stage.

The IUCN SSC Primate Specialist Group Section on Human-Primate Interactions  https://human-primate-interactions.org/responsible-primate-watching-for-tourists/

Spotlighting

From “Working in Wildlife Tourism” by Ronda Green:

“Gliders and nocturnal birds could be more in more danger than climbing animals if temporarily blinded by strong spotlights and camera flashlights, and possibly fly or glide into tree-trunks, tangles of thorny vines or barb wire fences. Gliders have been seen to be startled in mid-flight by a spotlight and tumble to the ground”

Guidelines from Australia

Marsupials

Kangaroos

From “Working in Wildlife Tourism” by Ronda Green:

Some kangaroos and wallabies are well accustomed to people and hardly notice you walk by – others are not, and will flee as soon as they see you. They tend to be more wary of walkers than of vehicles, so you can often approach them more closely in a slow-moving vehicle. If you are walking and want to get closer, they are likely to be alarmed if you head straight towards them. We have found with our own tours, when we see kangaroos that are accustomed to humans but not actually tame, it is often better to approach at an angle, as though you just intend walking past them, which ultimately you will do, but meantime gradually getting just a little closer, step by step. Avoid sudden movements and noises, and keep watching the animals. If they sit up straight, looking at you and with both ears picked forward towards you that’s a sign they are very much on the alert and will probably flee if you come any closer – it’s better then to go slightly further away and stop. If they then relax and start grazing you can start your slow approach again, ready to stop once more if they again assume the alert posture. If you live near kangaroos or other animals you are likely to approach frequently, you could try getting them accustomed to your presence by taking some of your work outside and just sitting within their vision with your laptop, getting them used to the idea that seeing humans is nothing to be alarmed at. I have been on one tour on Kangaroo Island where wild kangaroos had become so trusting of the tour guides they were able to take small, quiet groups close to their day-time resting sites in the forest. Isabelle Wolf has also conducted research on how best to approach red kangaroos and euros without disturbing them:http://www.mendeley.com/research/minimizing-disturbance-to-wildlife- by-tourists-approaching-on-foot-or-in-a-car-a-study-of-kangaroos-in-the- australian-rangelands/“

Possums

From “Working in Wildlife Tourism” by Ronda Green:

Researcher Robyn Wilson some years ago conducted a study on what disturbs several species of possum while spotlighting. She found that quiet adult voices and cars going past them were not as disturbing as the crunching of gravel and twigs underfoot – this makes sense, as they would have had a long evolutionary history of being eaten by predators who could make the latter noises during their approach (those that were the most predisposed to be alert to such sounds were more likely to avoid being eaten and thus contribute their genes to the next generation). She also found that covering a spotlight with a red filter was not as important as simply lowering the level of light (with filters of any colour, or by other means).:”

Wilson, R. 1999. Possums in the Spotlight. Nature Australia. (Autumn): 35-41.

Also see:

Guidelines from Asia

Guidelines from Africa and Madagascar

The big cats

Deliberate disturbance on game drives in Africa, such as cheetahs diverted from making a kill by drivers trying to keep abreast of them while tourists snap photos, are obviously badger the animals which now may not feed themselves or their young that day. Inadvertent disturbance, for instance by alerting prey by closely following a leopard at night in a tour vehicle, can have similar effect.

Anti-poaching

From https://www.travelagentcentral.com/tours/african-travel-inc-shares-ethical-wildlife-practices Not Geotagging Endangered Wildlife

While on safari, guests post photos of animal encounters on social media sites, not realizing that embedded within the post or the image is a geotag containing the GPS location of endangered wildlife such as elephants, rhinos and big cats. Poachers use this location data to track animals for poaching. On the eight-day “Under Kenyan Skies” safari, clients spend a day with East Africa’s first all-female anti-poaching unit. Guests can observe a dog-sniffing demonstration, which showcases how the trained bloodhounds track poachers to protect the 57,000-acre conservancy and its species. ATI shares tips on disabling geotagging to allow guests to protect and preserve wildlife:

  • iPhone: Settings > Privacy > Locations Services. You can turn off Location Services entirely or just on your phone’s camera
  • Android: Settings > Geotags disable; or, Settings > Locations > Tap on the green button to turn off tracking completely

Guidelines for Madagascar

https://www.responsibletravel.com/holidays/madagascar/travel-guide/madagascar-responsible-tourism-issues

Guidelines from Europe

Guidelines from North America

Guidelines from Canada

Private sector

–https://nahanni.com/experience/wildlife-and-plant-viewing/wildlife-viewing-guidelines/

–https://www.tourguidecanada.com/canadian-wildlife.html

–https://nimmobay.com/blog-ethical-responsible-and-educational-wildlife-viewing/

–https://www.eaglewingtours.com/conservation-initiatives/whale-smart-company/

Government

–https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/species-especes/mammals-mammiferes/watching-observation/index-eng.html

–https://parks.canada.ca/voyage-travel/conseils-tips/faune-wildlife

https://www.bewhalewise.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Be-Whale-Wise-Brochure-2021.pdf

–https://britishcolumbia.com/things-to-do-and-see/wildlife-viewing/whale-watching-guidelines/

Guidelines from Central and South America

Guidelines from Arctic and Antarctic Regions

Seals and sea-lions

Seals or sea-lions sleeping on a beach are very likely to have come back exhausted from very active swimming to catch enough fish to nourish itself and possibly also its actual or unborn pup. Tourists disturbing their sleep for photos may make them less able to catch enough the following day.

Antarctica

From “Working in Wildlife Tourism” by Ronda Green:

“Melissa Giese (Green and Giese 2004) found penguins’ heartbeats to get more rapid before they showed any visible signs of stress. If the viewer approaches more closely, they will start to look around to each side, and if the approach continues, they stand up. Big deal? Well if you are in the Antarctic yes it is, because even a few seconds of exposure to the icy air can kill chicks or crack eggs”. Green, R. J. and Giese, M. 2004. The Negative Effects of Wildlife Tourism on Wildlife. In K. Higginbottom (ed.) Wildlife Tourism, Sustainable Tourism CRC

Guidelines from Pacific, Indian and Atlantic Ocean Islands

Further references

AITO (n.d.), Sustainable Tourism accreditation (online), available at: www.aito.com/sustainable-tourism/guidelines (30-07-2019).

Ballantyne, R.; Packer, J. and Sutherland, L.A. (2011), ‘Visitors’ memories of wildlife tourism: Implications for the design of powerful interpretive experiences’, Tourism Management, volume 32 (4), pp. 770–779.

Butler, R. (2018), ‘Sustainable Tourism in Sensitive Environments: A Wolf in Sheep’s Clothing?’, Sustainability, volume 10 (6), pp. 1789.

Campos, A.C.; Mendes, J.; Oom do Valle, P. and Scott, N. (2017), ‘Co-creating animal-based tourist experiences: Attention, involvement and memorability’, Tourism Management, volume 63, pp. 100–114.

Chen, I.-L., Scott, N. and Benckendorff, P. (2017), ‘Mindful tourist experiences: A Buddhist perspective’, Annals of Tourism Research, volume 64, pp. 1–12.

Cui, Q.; Xu, H. and Wall, G. (2012), ‘A cultural perspective on wildlife tourism in China’, Tourism Recreation Research, volume 37 (1), pp. 27–36.

D’Lima, C. et al. (2018), ‘Using multiple indicators to evaluate the sustainability of dolphin-based wildlife tourism in rural India’, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, volume 26 (10), pp. 1687–1707.

Ecotourism Australia (n.d.), Ecotourism Resource Hub (online), available at: https://ecotourism.org.au (30-07-2019).

Green, R. (2013), Wildlife tourism: a handbook for guides, tour operators, jobseekers and business start-ups, Running Creek, via Rathdowney, Qld, Australia, Ronda J Green.

Green, R. and Higginbottom, K. (2001), ‘The Negative Effects of Wildlife Tourism on Wildlife’, Wildlife Tourism Research Report Series No. 5, Status Assessment of Wildlife Tourism in Australia Series, CRC for Sustainable Tourism, Gold Coast.

Grjerdalen, G. and Williams, P.W. (2000), ‘An evaluation of the utility of a whale watching code of conduct’, Tourism Recreation Research, volume 25 (2), pp. 27–37.

Higginbottom, K.; Northrope, C. and Green, R. (2001), ‘Positive effects of wildlife tourism on wildlife’, Wildlife Tourism Research Report Series No. 6. Status Assessment of Wildlife Tourism in Australia Series, CRC for Sustainable Tourism, Brisbane.

Higginbottom, K. (ed.) (2004), Wildlife tourism: Impacts, management and planning, Common Ground Publishing, Altona, Victoria.

Higginbottom, K. and Scott, N. (2004), ‘Wildlife tourism: A strategic destination approach’, in: Higginbottom, K. (ed.), Wildlife tourism: Impacts, management and planning,Common Ground Publishing, Altona, Victoria,

pp. 253–277.

Hughes, K.; Ballantyne, R. and Packer, J. (2014), ‘Comparing Chinese and Western Visitors’ Responses to Interpretive Signs at Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, China’, Visitor Studies, volume 17 (2),

pp. 137–158.

Intrepid (n.d.), Our stance on animal welfare (online), available at: www.intrepidtravel.com/au/animal-welfare (30-07-2019).

Laohachaiboon, S. (2010), ‘Conservation for Whom? Elephant Conservation and Elephant Conservationists in Thailand’, Southeast Asian Studies, volume 48 (1), pp. 74–95.

Leung, Y.; Spenceley, A.; Hvenegaard, G. and Buckley, R. (eds.) (2018), Tourism and visitor management in protected areas: Guidelines for sustainability, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Ministry of Tourism, Government of India (1998), Ecotourism in India – Policy and guidelines, Government of India, New Delhi.

Moorhouse, T.P. et al. (2015), ‘The Customer Isn’t Always Right: Conservation and Animal Welfare Implications of the Increasing Demand for Wildlife Tourism’, Plos One,
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138939.

Newsome, D.; Rodger, K.; Pearce, J. and Chan, K.L.J. (2017), ‘Visitor satisfaction with a key wildlife tourism destination within the context of a damaged landscape’, Current Issues in Tourism, volume 22 (6), pp. 729–746.

Öqvist, E.L.; Granquist, S.M.; Burns, G.L. and Angerbjörn, A. (2018), ‘Seal Watching: An Investigation of Codes of Conduct’, Tourism in Marine Environments, volume 13 (1), pp. 1–15.

Orams, M. (2002), ‘Feeding wildlife as a tourism attraction: A review of issues and impacts’, Tourism Management, volume 23 (3), pp. 281–293

Pearce, P.; Wu, M.-Y. and Osmond, A.M. (2013), ‘Puzzles in Understanding Chinese Tourist Behaviour: Towards a Triple-C Gaze’, Tourism Recreation Research,
volume 38 (2), pp. 145–157.

Pimmanrojnagool, V. and Wanghongsa, S. (2001), ‘A study of street wandering elephants in Bangkok and the socio- economic life of their mahouts’, in: Baker, I. and Kashio, M. (eds.), Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant. Bangkok, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, pp. 34–42.

Rodgers, W.A. (1989), ‘Policy Issues in Wildlife Conservation’, Indian Journal of Public Administration, volume 35 (3), pp. 461–468.

Russell, C.L. (1995), ‘The Social Construction of Orangutans: An Ecotourist Experience’, Society and Animals, volume 3 (2), pp. 151–170.

Schmidt-Burbach, J.; Ronfot, D. and Srisangiam. R. (2015), ‘Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus), Pig-Tailed Macaque (Macaca nemestrina) and Tiger (Panthera tigris) Populations at Tourism Venues in Thailand and Aspects of Their Welfare’, Plos One,

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0139092.

Sekercioglu, C.H. (2002), ‘Impacts of birdwatching on human and avian communities’, Environmental Conservation, volume 29 (3), pp. 282–289.

Sengupta, A.; McConkey, K. and Radhakrishna, S. (2015), ‘Primates, Provisioning and Plants: Impacts of Human Cultural Behaviours on Primate Ecological Functions’, Plos One, volume 10 (11),

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0140961

Steven, R.; Morrison, C. and Castley, J.G. (2015), ‘Birdwatching and avitourism: a global review of research into its participant markets, distribution and impacts, highlighting future research priorities to inform sustainable avitourism management’, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, volume 23 (8–9), pp. 1257–1276.

TripAdvisor (n.d.), Improving Animal Welfare in Tourism (online), available at: www.tripadvisor.com/blog/animal-welfare- education-portal/ (30-07-2019)

Wolf, I.D. and Croft, D.B. (2012), ‘Observation techniques that minimize impacts on wildlife and maximize visitor satisfaction in night-time tours’, Tourism Management Perspectives, volume 4, 164–175.

Working Group on Environmental Auditing (WEGA) (2013), Impact of Tourism on Wildlife Conservation, International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions (INTOSAI), Jakarta, Indonesia.